Difference between revisions of "Underdrains"

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Underdrains comprise a length of perforated [[pipe]] embedded into a layer of [[reservoir aggregate]]. They are an optional component of [[bioretention]] systems, [[bioswales]], [[permeable pavements]] and [[Stormwater Tree Trenches |stormwater tree trenches]], and a required component of [[stormwater planters]]. Underdrain perforated pipes should be located below the frost line to reduce the threat of ice clogging. Ontario provincial standard drawings of frost penetration depth are available from the [https://www.library.mto.gov.on.ca/SydneyPLUS/TechPubs/Portal/tp/opsViews.aspx Ministry of Transportation] as OPSD 3090.100 for northern Ontario <ref> Ministry of Transportation. 2010. Foundation Frost Penetration Depths for Northern Ontario. OPSD 3090.100. Nov 2010. Rev.1. https://www.library.mto.gov.on.ca/SydneyPLUS/TechPubs/Portal/tp/opsViews.aspx </ref> and OPSD 3090.101 for southern Ontario <ref> Ministry of Transportation. 2010. Foundation Frost Penetration Depths for Southern Ontario. OPSD 3090.101. Nov 2010. Rev.1. https://www.library.mto.gov.on.ca/SydneyPLUS/TechPubs/Portal/tp/opsViews.aspx </ref>. Underdrains featuring perforated pipes require connections to standpipes or structures that provide access to the pipe for inspection and maintenance purposes. Underdrain designs vary according to whether or not the facility is designed to infiltrate stormwater.
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Underdrains comprise a length of perforated pipe embedded into a reservoir gravel layer.  
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{{TOClimit|2}}
  
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*To promote infiltration the base of the gravel reservoir and the underdrain pipe should be horizontal to optimize distribution of the water within.  
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==Underdrains for infiltrating practices==
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The perforated pipe within the drain should be elevated from the base to promote infiltration of the water stored beneath. The depth of this [[Bioretention: Internal_water_storage| internal water storage reservoir]] should be sized to capture and infiltrate the design storm event runoff volume based on the desired [[drainage time]] and the [[design infiltration rate]] of the native soils below. An alternative design configuration is to install the perforated pipe on the base of the practice and using an upturned outflow pipe to permit the required head of water to be stored.
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*Underdrain access structures/cleanouts, which may be maintenance holes or vertical standpipes connected to the perforated pipe, must be included in the design for periodic inspection and flushing of the perforated pipe. Negotiating 90 degree bends will be troublesome for most push camera and jet nozzle cleaning equipment, so it is preferable that 45 degree pipe couplings be used instead.
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'''Cleanouts''' are "''a fitting access in a drainage system or venting system that is installed to provide access for cleaning and inspection and that is provided with a readily replaceable air tight cover''" ([https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332 O.Reg 332/12: Building Code, 2022])<ref>Province of Ontario. (2018). O. Reg. 332/12: BUILDING CODE. Retrieved February 23, 2018, from https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332</ref>.
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{| class="wikitable"
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|+Clean out spacing<ref>Province of Ontario. (2022). O. Reg. 332/12: BUILDING CODE. Retrieved February 23, 2018, from https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332</ref>
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|-
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! Pipe internal diameter (mm)
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! Maximum distance between cleanouts (m)
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|-
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| 100
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| 15
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|-
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| 200 or greater
 +
| 30
 +
|}
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In some cases where the underdrain layer has sufficient depth to accommodate it, a larger diameter perforated pipe (e.g. ≥ 300 mm) may be used to add further storage capacity to a [[bioretention]] or a [[bioswale]] project. Ultimately this idea may result in the use of [[infiltration chambers]] or other void-forming structures to create significant reservoir storage beneath a bioretention filter media bed or permeable pavement. Be sure to check with manufacturers about the compatibility of their systems with trees.
 +
 
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See the [[Flow through perforated pipe]] for underdrain capacity equation with LID BMPs.
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==Underdrains for non-infiltrating practices==
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===Below ground===
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Where a stormwater planter or biofiltration cell is contained within a concrete box or completely lined to prevent infiltration, the perforated pipe should be bedded on a thin layer of fine aggregate. This thin layer is to hold the pipe in place during construction, and to permit free ingress of accumulated water through holes on the underside of the pipe. As storage in a non-infiltrating practice is predominantly through soil/water tension, the depth of reservoir should be minimised to just accommodate the pipe.
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A pair of vertical clean out pipes/wells should be included in the design, for inspection and periodic flushing of accumulated sediment. As most hydro-jetting apparatus used for this has some trouble accommodating narrow 90 degree bends, it is important that both ends of a perforated pipe be connected with a pair of 45 degree elbows or Y couplings instead.
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===Above ground===
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Where possible the underdrain pipe should be designed without any bends for easy inspection and maintenance. Otherwise see advice above regarding pipe couplings. 
 +
 
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*To optimize water distribution and promote infiltration the base of the storage reservoir and the underdrain pipe should be graded level.  
 
*Where drainage or conveyance to a downstream facility is a greater priority, the base of the reservoir and the underdrain pipe may have a gradient of up to 1-2%.
 
*Where drainage or conveyance to a downstream facility is a greater priority, the base of the reservoir and the underdrain pipe may have a gradient of up to 1-2%.
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*Geotextile fabric may be used to line the reservoir space.
 
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*A minimum of 150 mm reservoir gravel should be laid beneath the perforated pipe.
 
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*A minimum of 300 mm reservoir gravel should be laid over the perforated pipe. An exception would be where a small bioretention installation is being made in a stormwater planter and no compaction of the reservoir material is undertaken. Otherwise this material is required to protect the pipe from the compaction processes.
 
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*A layer of 75 - 100 mm pea gravel may then be included on top of the reservoir gravel to provide a smoother surface and reduce tearing to the geotextile.
 
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*A layer of geotextile is usually then used to prevent migration of fines into the underdrain/reservoir space.
 
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A pair of small wells are recommended to inspect and periodically flush accumulated sediment from the underdrain pipe.
 
  
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==Inspection and maintenance==
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[[File:45 degs.PNG|thumb|Schematic of pipes and connectors]]
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[[File:Jet cleaning.jpg|thumb|Diagram of hydrojetting cleaning apparatus]]
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*To permit access by cameras or cleaning apparatus, 90 degree pipe couplings must not be used in subterranean underdrains. Instead 2 x 45 degree couplings, or 3 x 30 degree couplings should be used (see figure to the right).
 +
*For the same reason, dual walled perforated pipes with smooth internal walls are highly recommended to reduce the potential snagging of maintenance equipment. 
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*The recommended distances between [[Wells|clean outs]] is based on advice for filter beds in the Ontario Building Code<ref>Province of Ontario. (2018). O. Reg. 332/12: BUILDING CODE. Retrieved February 23, 2018, from https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332</ref>. However, the access capabilities of difference apparatus and contractors varies and designers are advised to take advice from maintenance operators in this matter.
  
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==Spacing drainage pipes==
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*[[Wells]]
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In most LID underdrain applications, drains should be spaced between 5 - 6 m apart.
 
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This limits the flow path through the granular material and is supported by an analysis of Hooghoudt's equation <ref>H.P.Ritzema, 1994, Subsurface flow to drains. Chapter 8 in: H.P.Ritzema (ed.), Drainage Principles and Applications, Publ. 16, pp. 236-304, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands. ISBN 90-70754-33-9</ref><ref>W.H. van der Molen en J.Wesseling, 1991. A solution in closed form and a series solution to replace the tables for the thickness of the equivalent layer in Hooghoudt's drain spacing equation. Agricultural Water Management 19, pp.1-16</ref><ref>van Beers, W.F.J. 1976, COMPUTING DRAIN SPACINGS: A generalized method with special reference to sensitivity analysis
 
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and geo-hydrological investigations, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI) Wageningen, The Netherlands</ref> in relation to loamy or clayey native soils, where ''K<sub>media</sub>''>>''K<sub>soil</sub>'', finds the first term of the numerator negligible, so that the original equation:
 
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<math>Drain\ spacing=\sqrt{\frac{8K_{soil}H\left(D_{i}-D_{d}\right)\left(D_{d}-D_{w}\right)+4K_{soil}\left(D_{d}-D_{w}\right)^{2}}{q}}</math>
 
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may be simplified to:
 
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<math>Drain\ spacing=\sqrt{\frac{4K_{media}\left(D_{d}-D_{w}\right)^{2}}{q}}</math>
 
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Where:
 
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''K<sub>media</sub> is expressed in m/day
 
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''D<sub>d</sub>'' is the depth to the drain pipe (m)
 
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''D<sub>w</sub>'' is the minimum acceptable depth to the water table during infiltration event
 
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''q'' is the inflow volume expressed as a depth over the entire surface (m)
 
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===Example===
 
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During a 25 mm storm event, a bioretention cell receives concentrated flow from a catchment 20 times larger than its own footprint (25 x 20 = 500 mm = 0.5 m).
 
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The bioretention cell comprises 0.6 m filter media (K = 2.4 m/day), laid over 0.6 m clear, coarse reservoir gravel. The pipes are laid within the reservoir, 0.9 m below the surface.
 
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The system is designed to fill entirely during the rainstorm event. i.e. Depth to water table = 0 m.:   
 
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<math>Drain\ spacing=\sqrt{\frac{4\times 2.4m/day\left(0.9m-0m\right)^{2}}{0.5m/day}}=6 m</math>
 
  
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==Recommendations for material specifications==
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==Material specifications==
 
===Pipes===
 
===Pipes===
 
{{:Pipes}}
 
{{:Pipes}}
 
===Reservoir gravel===
 
===Reservoir gravel===
 
{{:Reservoir gravel}}
 
{{:Reservoir gravel}}
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===Pea gravel===
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===Choker layer===
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{{:Pea gravel}}
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{{:Choker layer}} Geotextiles may be used to separate the underdrain from native soils on the vertical faces.
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===Geotextiles===
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{{:Geotextiles}}
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==Alternative technologies==
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* Smart Drain is a polymer ribbon-like material with capillary drains on the underside; it's use has recently been demonstrated in bioretention<ref>Redahegn Sileshi; Robert Pitt, P.E., M.ASCE; and Shirley Clark, P.E., M.ASCE Performance Evaluation of an Alternative Underdrain Material for Stormwater Biofiltration Systems, Journal of Sustainable Water in the Built Environment, 4(2), May 2018 https://doi.org/10.1061/JSWBAY.0000845 </ref>. It's low profile may make it particularly well suited to non-infiltrating practices, such as [[Stormwater planters]].
 +
[[File:Smart drain.jpg|thumb|Ribbon-like drainage material]]
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----

Latest revision as of 19:19, 6 October 2022

Underdrains comprise a length of perforated pipe embedded into a layer of reservoir aggregate. They are an optional component of bioretention systems, bioswales, permeable pavements and stormwater tree trenches, and a required component of stormwater planters. Underdrain perforated pipes should be located below the frost line to reduce the threat of ice clogging. Ontario provincial standard drawings of frost penetration depth are available from the Ministry of Transportation as OPSD 3090.100 for northern Ontario [1] and OPSD 3090.101 for southern Ontario [2]. Underdrains featuring perforated pipes require connections to standpipes or structures that provide access to the pipe for inspection and maintenance purposes. Underdrain designs vary according to whether or not the facility is designed to infiltrate stormwater.

Underdrains for infiltrating practices[edit]

The perforated pipe within the drain should be elevated from the base to promote infiltration of the water stored beneath. The depth of this internal water storage reservoir should be sized to capture and infiltrate the design storm event runoff volume based on the desired drainage time and the design infiltration rate of the native soils below. An alternative design configuration is to install the perforated pipe on the base of the practice and using an upturned outflow pipe to permit the required head of water to be stored.

  • Underdrain access structures/cleanouts, which may be maintenance holes or vertical standpipes connected to the perforated pipe, must be included in the design for periodic inspection and flushing of the perforated pipe. Negotiating 90 degree bends will be troublesome for most push camera and jet nozzle cleaning equipment, so it is preferable that 45 degree pipe couplings be used instead.

Cleanouts are "a fitting access in a drainage system or venting system that is installed to provide access for cleaning and inspection and that is provided with a readily replaceable air tight cover" (O.Reg 332/12: Building Code, 2022)[3].

Clean out spacing[4]
Pipe internal diameter (mm) Maximum distance between cleanouts (m)
100 15
200 or greater 30

In some cases where the underdrain layer has sufficient depth to accommodate it, a larger diameter perforated pipe (e.g. ≥ 300 mm) may be used to add further storage capacity to a bioretention or a bioswale project. Ultimately this idea may result in the use of infiltration chambers or other void-forming structures to create significant reservoir storage beneath a bioretention filter media bed or permeable pavement. Be sure to check with manufacturers about the compatibility of their systems with trees.

See the Flow through perforated pipe for underdrain capacity equation with LID BMPs.

Underdrains for non-infiltrating practices[edit]

Below ground[edit]

Where a stormwater planter or biofiltration cell is contained within a concrete box or completely lined to prevent infiltration, the perforated pipe should be bedded on a thin layer of fine aggregate. This thin layer is to hold the pipe in place during construction, and to permit free ingress of accumulated water through holes on the underside of the pipe. As storage in a non-infiltrating practice is predominantly through soil/water tension, the depth of reservoir should be minimised to just accommodate the pipe. A pair of vertical clean out pipes/wells should be included in the design, for inspection and periodic flushing of accumulated sediment. As most hydro-jetting apparatus used for this has some trouble accommodating narrow 90 degree bends, it is important that both ends of a perforated pipe be connected with a pair of 45 degree elbows or Y couplings instead.

Above ground[edit]

Where possible the underdrain pipe should be designed without any bends for easy inspection and maintenance. Otherwise see advice above regarding pipe couplings.

  • To optimize water distribution and promote infiltration the base of the storage reservoir and the underdrain pipe should be graded level.
  • Where drainage or conveyance to a downstream facility is a greater priority, the base of the reservoir and the underdrain pipe may have a gradient of up to 1-2%.

Inspection and maintenance[edit]

Schematic of pipes and connectors
Diagram of hydrojetting cleaning apparatus
  • To permit access by cameras or cleaning apparatus, 90 degree pipe couplings must not be used in subterranean underdrains. Instead 2 x 45 degree couplings, or 3 x 30 degree couplings should be used (see figure to the right).
  • For the same reason, dual walled perforated pipes with smooth internal walls are highly recommended to reduce the potential snagging of maintenance equipment.
  • The recommended distances between clean outs is based on advice for filter beds in the Ontario Building Code[5]. However, the access capabilities of difference apparatus and contractors varies and designers are advised to take advice from maintenance operators in this matter.

Material specifications[edit]

Pipes[edit]

Pipes are available with perforations on just one side, these should be situated on the lower half of the pipe. Pipes with 360° perforations should have a strip of geotextile or membrane placed over the pipe to reduce the migration of fines from overlying media.

Perforated pipes are a common component of underdrains used in bioretention, permeable pavements, infiltration trenches and exfiltration systems.

Pipes should be manufactured in conformity with the latest standards by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) or ASTM International.

  • Perforated pipes should be continuously perforated, smooth interior HDPE or PVC.
    • Wherever possible pipes should be ≥200 mm internal diameter to reduce potential of freezing and to facilitate push camera inspections and cleaning with jet nozzle equipment.
    • Smooth interior facilitates inspection and maintenance activities; internal corrugations can cause cameras or hydrojetting apparatus to become snagged.
    • A perforated pipe with many rectangular slots has better drainage characteristics than a pipe with similar open area provided by fewer circular holes [6].
  • Non-perforated pipes should be used for conveyance of stormwater to and from the facility, including overflow. It is good practice to extend the solid pipe approximately 300 mm within the reservoir or practice to reduce the potential for native soil migration into the pipe.

  • Pipe with slotted perforations

  • Perforated pipes awaiting installation, note the 45 degree couplings used to facilitate push camera inspection and jet nozzle cleaning.

See also: Flow through perforated pipe

Reservoir gravel[edit]

Note the uniform size and angularity of this clear stone sample. Note also that the fragments all appear to have a film of fine particles adhering; this material would be improved by being washed prior to use.

This article gives recommendations for aggregate to be used to store water for infiltration. This is usually called 'clear stone' at aggregate yards.

To see an analysis of Ontario Standard Specifications for granular materials, see OPSS aggregates.

For advice on decorative surface aggregates see Stone

Gravel used for underdrains in bioretention, infiltration trenches and chambers, and exfiltration trenches should be 20 or 50 mm, uniformly-graded, clean (maximum wash loss of 0.5%), crushed angular stone that has a porosity of 0.4[7].

The clean wash to prevent rapid accumulation of fines from the aggregate particles in the base of the reservoir. The uniform grading and the angularity are important to maintain pore throats and clear voids between particles. (i.e. achieve the porosity). Porosity and permeability are directly influenced by the size, gradation and angularity of the particles [8]. See jar test for on-site verification testing protocols.

Gravel with structural requirements should also meet the following criteria:

  • Minimum durability index of 35
  • Maximum abrasion of 10% for 100 revolutions and maximum of 50% for 500 revolutions

Standard specifications for the gradation of aggregates are maintained by ASTM D2940

  • The highest porosity is found in uniformly graded aggregate, as there are no smaller particles to occupy the inter-particle pores. [8]

  • Higher permeability is found in larger, angular, uniformly graded aggregate. This is due to larger pore sizes and lower tortuosity. [8]

Choker layer[edit]

medium sized granular, free from fines

In bioretention systems a choker layer of ≥ 100 mm depth is the recommended method to prevent migration of finer filter media into the underlying storage reservoir aggregate. These same mid-sized granular materials are recommended for use in Stormwater planter underdrains and may be useful in the fine grading of foundations courses for permeable pavements.

Suitable materials include:

High performance bedding (HPB)
Clean, angular aggregate screened to between 6 and 10 mm. Widely available and designed specifically for drainage applications. Free from fines by definition.
HL 6
Is a clean, angular aggregate screened between 10 and 20 mm. Free from fines by definition.
Pea Gravel
Rounded natural aggregate, screened between 5 and 15 mm, and washed free from fines.

In most scenarios, a geotextile layer is unnecessary and has been associated with rapid decline and clogging in some circumstances. Geotextiles may be used to separate the underdrain from native soils on the vertical faces.

Alternative technologies[edit]

  • Smart Drain is a polymer ribbon-like material with capillary drains on the underside; it's use has recently been demonstrated in bioretention[9]. It's low profile may make it particularly well suited to non-infiltrating practices, such as Stormwater planters.
Ribbon-like drainage material
  1. ↑ Ministry of Transportation. 2010. Foundation Frost Penetration Depths for Northern Ontario. OPSD 3090.100. Nov 2010. Rev.1. https://www.library.mto.gov.on.ca/SydneyPLUS/TechPubs/Portal/tp/opsViews.aspx
  2. ↑ Ministry of Transportation. 2010. Foundation Frost Penetration Depths for Southern Ontario. OPSD 3090.101. Nov 2010. Rev.1. https://www.library.mto.gov.on.ca/SydneyPLUS/TechPubs/Portal/tp/opsViews.aspx
  3. ↑ Province of Ontario. (2018). O. Reg. 332/12: BUILDING CODE. Retrieved February 23, 2018, from https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332
  4. ↑ Province of Ontario. (2022). O. Reg. 332/12: BUILDING CODE. Retrieved February 23, 2018, from https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332
  5. ↑ Province of Ontario. (2018). O. Reg. 332/12: BUILDING CODE. Retrieved February 23, 2018, from https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332
  6. ↑ Hazenberg, G., and U. S. Panu (1991), Theoretical analysis of flow rate into perforated drain tubes, Water Resour. Res., 27(7), 1411–1418, doi:10.1029/91WR00779.
  7. ↑ Porosity of Structural Backfill, Tech Sheet #1, Stormtech, Nov 2012, http://www.stormtech.com/download_files/pdf/techsheet1.pdf accessed 16 October 2017
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Judge, Aaron, "Measurement of the Hydraulic Conductivity of Gravels Using a Laboratory Permeameter and Silty Sands Using Field Testing with Observation Wells" (2013). Dissertations. 746. http://scholarworks.umass.edu/open_access_dissertations/746
  9. ↑ Redahegn Sileshi; Robert Pitt, P.E., M.ASCE; and Shirley Clark, P.E., M.ASCE Performance Evaluation of an Alternative Underdrain Material for Stormwater Biofiltration Systems, Journal of Sustainable Water in the Built Environment, 4(2), May 2018 https://doi.org/10.1061/JSWBAY.0000845

A perforated pipe used to assist the draining of soils.

Surface runoff from at-grade surfaces, resulting from rain or snowmelt events.

The portion of water precipitated onto a catchment area, which then flows as surface discharge from the catchment area past a specified point.

Water from rain, snow melt, or irrigation that flows over the land surface.

Cleanouts are "a fitting access in a drainage system or venting system that is installed to provide access for cleaning and inspection and that is provided with a readily replaceable air tight cover" (O.Reg 332/12: Building Code, 2022).

Cleanouts are "a fitting access in a drainage system or venting system that is installed to provide access for cleaning and inspection and that is provided with a readily replaceable air tight cover" (O.Reg 332/12: Building Code, 2022).

A system flow of gully inlets, pipes, overland flow paths, open channels, culverts and detention basins used to convey runoff to its receiving waters. City of Toronto 45 Wet Weather Flow Management November 2006

Cleanouts are "a fitting access in a drainage system or venting system that is installed to provide access for cleaning and inspection and that is provided with a readily replaceable air tight cover" (O.Reg 332/12: Building Code, 2022).

A perforated pipe used to assist the draining of soils.

A shallow excavated surface depression containing prepared filter media, mulch, and planted with selected vegetation.

The engineered soil component of bioretention cell or dry swale designs, typically with a high rate of infiltration and designed to retain contaminants through filtration and adsorption to particles.

An alternative practice to traditional impervious pavement, prevents the generation of runoff by allowing precipitation falling on the surface to infiltrate through the surface course into an underlying stone reservoir and, where suitable conditions exist, into the native soil.

Low Impact Development. A stormwater management strategy that seeks to mitigate the impacts of increased urban runoff and stormwater pollution by managing it as close to its source as possible. It comprises a set of site design approaches and small scale stormwater management practices that promote the use of natural systems for infiltration and evapotranspiration, and rainwater harvesting.

A vegetated practice that collects and treats stormwater through sedimentation and filtration. Contributions to water cycle/water balance are through evapotranspiration only; no infiltration.

The slow movement of water into or through a soil or drainage system.

Penetration of water through the ground surface.

A broad category of particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates, and available in various particulate size gradations.

Cleanouts are "a fitting access in a drainage system or venting system that is installed to provide access for cleaning and inspection and that is provided with a readily replaceable air tight cover" (O.Reg 332/12: Building Code, 2022).

Soil, sand and minerals washed from land into water, usually after rain. They pile up in reservoirs, rivers and harbors, destroying fish-nesting areas and holes of water animals and cloud the water so that needed sunlight might not reach aquatic plans. Careless farming, mining and building activities will expose sediment materials, allowing them to be washed off the land after rainfalls.

An underlying bed filled with aggregate or other void-forming fill material that temporarily stores stormwater before infiltrating into the native soil or being conveyed by an underdrain pipe.

Filter fabric that is installed to separate dissimilar soils and provide runoff filtration and contaminant removal benefits while maintaining a suitable rate of flow; may be used to prevent fine-textured soil from entering a coarse granular bed, or to prevent coarse granular from being compressed into underlying finer-textured soils.

Soil particles with a diameter less than 0.050 mm.

The natural ground material characteristic of or existing by virtue of geographic origin.

Gravel, or crushed stone of various size gradations (i.e., diameter), used in construction; void forming material used as bedding and runoff storage reservoirs and underdrains in stormwater infiltration practices.

A broad category of particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates, and available in various particulate size gradations.

The porosity (n) of a mixture is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the total or bulk volume of the mixture. It is closely related to the concept of void ratio (e) where void ratio is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the volume of solids. n = Volume of voids/Total volume of mixture = e/(1+e)

The porosity (n) of a mixture is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the total or bulk volume of the mixture. It is closely related to the concept of void ratio (e) where void ratio is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the volume of solids. n = Volume of voids/Total volume of mixture = e/(1+e)

Refers to the conditions in which an organism lives and survives or the conditions in which an organism resides. These conditions can be described as aspects of a “physical”, “social” or an “economic” environment, depending on the perspective perceived by the observer.

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