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Line 27: − ==Performance== − Tree canopies intercept and store rainfall, thereby modifying stormwater runoff and reducing demands on urban stormwater infrastructure (Xiao et al., 1998; Xiao et al., 2000; Xiao and McPherson, 2002; Xiao et al., 2006). Canopy interception reduces both the actual runoff volumes, and delays the onset of peak flows (Davey Resource Group, 2008). − The extent of interception is influenced by a number of factors including tree architecture and it has been estimated that a typical medium-sized canopy tree can intercept as much as 9000 litres of rainfall year. (Crockford and Richardson, 2000). − + + − + − + + + + + + + − + − http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/9/11/1202/pdf+ − http://lfs-mlws.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2014/10/an_analytical_model_of_rainfall_interception_by_urban_trees.pdf+ − https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/land-surface-vegetation/biophysical-parameters/9162+ − https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/1999WR900003 − − − Line 54:
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==Overview==
==Overview==
Trees can be incorporated into [[bioretention]] cells with other plant types, or otherwise into their own planting pits.
Trees can be incorporated into [[bioretention]] cells with other plant types, or otherwise into their own planting pits.
A study of rainfall interception by street and park trees in Santa Monica, California found that interception rates varied by tree species and size, with broadleaf evergreen trees provided the most rainfall interception (Xiao and McPherson, 2002). Rainfall interception was found to range from 15.3% for a small jacaranda (Jacaranda mimosifolia) to 66.5% for a mature brush box (Tristania conferta now known as Lophostemon confertus). Over the city as a whole the trees intercepted 1.6% of annual precipitation and the researchers calculated that the annual value of avoided stormwater treatment and flood control costs associated with this reduced runoff was US$110,890 (US$3.60 per tree).
==Planning considerations==
A commonly held view is that a tree's root system will be similar to it's visible crown. For many trees, this is not the case, as roots will more often spread much more widely, but to a shallower depth <ref>Crow, P. (2005). The Influence of Soils and Species on Tree Root Depth. Edinburgh. Retrieved from https://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/FCIN078.pdf/$FILE/FCIN078.pdf</ref>. For more detailed information on planning (site) considerations see [[Bioretention]]
==Planning considerations==
===Planting in slopes===
A commonly held view is that a tree's root system will be similar to it's visible crown. For many trees, this is not the case, as roots will more often spread mush more widely, but to a shallower depth <ref>Crow, P. (2005). The Influence of Soils and Species on Tree Root Depth. Edinburgh. Retrieved from https://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/FCIN078.pdf/$FILE/FCIN078.pdf</ref>.
Smooth slopes should be amended into localised terraces by the landscape Architect when planting large trees into slopes > 5 %. <ref>Wilkus A., 'Slope Style', Landscape Architecture Magazine, April 2018, accessed 21 December 2018, https://landscapearchitecturemagazine.org/2018/04/24/slope-style/</ref>
==Design==
==Design==
There are many design configuration options for including trees into stormwater management plans.
==Soil cells==
These are (usually plastic) supporting structures placed around the trees and beneath adjacent paved areas. They prevent compaction to the roots of the tree and prevent root damage to the paving. They are sometimes configured to receive stormwater and to enclose ponded water which can then infiltrate the soil surrounding the tree.
Things to consider in design:
*If the system is unlined it is hydraulically equivalent to a [[bioretention]] and provides similar water quality benefits.
*If the systems is lined, it is hydraulically similar to a large [[stormwater planter]]. Depending on the design detail it may retain significant stormwater within the planting volume soil and will provide water quality benefits.
===Canopy interception===
===Species selection===
[[Trees: List]]
===Planting pit Sizing===
[[Bioretention: Sizing]]
==Components==
===Inlets===
===Inlets===
Multiple methods for distribution and conveyance of runoff into the system are recommended for redundancy and conservative designs.
Multiple methods for distribution and conveyance of runoff into the system are recommended for redundancy and conservative designs.
*catch basins and distribution pipes, and
*catch basins and distribution pipes, and
*direct infiltration from permeable paving.
*direct infiltration from permeable paving.
See also [[Inlets]] and [[pretreatment]]]
See also [[Inlets]] and [[pretreatment]]
===Underdrain===
===Underdrain===
[[Underdrain]]
[[Underdrain]]
==Species selection==
==Performance==
===Interception===
Tree canopies intercept and store rainfall, thereby modifying stormwater runoff and reducing demands on urban stormwater infrastructure (Xiao et al., 1998; Xiao et al., 2000; Xiao and McPherson, 2002; Xiao et al., 2006). Canopy interception reduces both the actual runoff volumes, and delays the onset of peak flows (Davey Resource Group, 2008).
The extent of interception is influenced by a number of factors including tree architecture and it has been estimated that a typical medium-sized canopy tree can intercept as much as 9000 litres of rainfall year. (Crockford and Richardson, 2000).
A study of rainfall interception by street and park trees in Santa Monica, California found that interception rates varied by tree species and size, with broadleaf evergreen trees provided the most rainfall interception (Xiao and McPherson, 2002). Rainfall interception was found to range from 15.3% for a small jacaranda (Jacaranda mimosifolia) to 66.5% for a mature brush box (Tristania conferta now known as Lophostemon confertus). Over the city as a whole the trees intercepted 1.6% of annual precipitation and the researchers calculated that the annual value of avoided stormwater treatment and flood control costs associated with this reduced runoff was US$110,890 (US$3.60 per tree).
*http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/9/11/1202/pdf
*http://lfs-mlws.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2014/10/an_analytical_model_of_rainfall_interception_by_urban_trees.pdf
*https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/land-surface-vegetation/biophysical-parameters/9162
*https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/1999WR900003
==Performance and research==
===Transpiration===
[[File:TreeTranspiration.png|thumb|Trees suck! (Abstracted from Phyto, by K. Kennen)]]
[[File:TreeTranspiration.png|thumb|Trees suck! (Abstracted from Phyto, by K. Kennen)]]
*http://www.itreetools.org/eco/international.php
*http://www.itreetools.org/eco/international.php
*http://treesandstormwater.org/
*http://treesandstormwater.org/
*http://cvc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/CaseStudy_CPW_Final.pdf
*https://cvc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/TechReport_CPW_Final.pdf
==Galleries==
==Galleries==
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{{float right|{{#widget:YouTube|id=Un2yBgIAxYs}}}}
*http://gievidencebase.botanicgardens.sa.gov.au/contents/7-water-management#Canopy-Interception
*http://gievidencebase.botanicgardens.sa.gov.au/contents/7-water-management#Canopy-Interception
*[http://www.jamesurban.net/specifications standard details and specifications from James Urban]
{{:Disclaimer}}
{{:Disclaimer}}
*[http://cupolex.ca/ Cupolex]
*[http://cupolex.ca/ Cupolex]