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Line 22: − − ===Climate-related impacts=== − Since 1995, Ontario has had a weather-related state of emergency almost every single year <ref>Swiss Re (in collaboration with Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction) (2010). Making Flood Insurable for Canadian Homeowners. Available at URL: http://www.iclr.org/images/Making_Flood_Insurable_for_Canada.pdf</ref>. The City of Windsor saw extreme events that caused severe flooding in 2007, 2010, 2016 and 2017 <ref>City of Windsor. 2012. Climate Change Adaptation Plan. Available at URL: http://www.citywindsor.ca/residents/environment/environmental-master-plan/documents/windsor%20climate%20change%20adaptation%20plan.pdf</ref>. The Ottawa region experienced one extreme event every year for five years, and in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), there have been four extreme rainfall events in the past ten years <ref>Environment Canada. 2014. Climate. Available at URL: http://climate.weather.gc.ca/</ref>. Such high intensity events produce heavy rainfall in relatively short periods of time. While it is reasonable to expect runoff to be produced under such conditions – particularly when rain falls which exceeds a soil’s hydraulic conductivity - the production of stormwater is exacerbated in urban areas where the overwhelming majority of surfaces are impervious. The problems associated with managing stormwater volumes are exacerbated when dense stormsewer networks efficiently convey stormwater runoff volumes from a large contributing upland area to a single outlet location, such as a stormsewer outfall in a river or stream. − − In July 2013, the GTA experienced its most severe storm event in 60 years. Nearly five inches (126 mm) of rain fell in a two-hour period. In comparison, during Hurricane Hazel (a devastating event in 1954 where 81 lives were lost), the two-hour maximum precipitation was 91 mm and the total amount of rainfall was 285 mm over nearly two days <ref>Toronto Star. 2013. Monday’s storm vs. Hurricane Hazel. Available at URL: http://www.thestar.com/opinion/letters_ to_the_editors/2013/07/14/mondays_storm_vs_hurricane_hazel.html</ref>. Conventional municipal drainage systems could not carry stormwater away fast enough. Roads and highways were overcome with floodwater closing major transportation corridors including Highway 427. GO Train passengers were stranded, and power outages and basement flooding were widespread with property damage of more than $1 billion <ref>Insurance Bureau of Canada (IBC). 2016. Facts of the property & casualty insurance industry in Canada. 36th edition, ISSN 1197 3404. Available at URL: http://assets.ibc.ca/Documents/Facts%20Book/Facts_Book/2016/Facts-Book-2016.pdf</ref>. − − While it is nearly impossible to ascribe the cause of a single event to the broader issue of climate change, the trend is clear: an increasing number of high-intensity, short-duration (HISD) events are impacting our urban areas, exacerbating the stresses on overtaxed stormwater infrastructure. The figure highlights a series of seven recent extreme rainfall events which have struck the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area (GTHA). − − On August 10, 2012, a large storm tracked across Lake Ontario parallel to the Canadian shoreline. Situated only 15 km southeast of Mississauga, this event lasted 6.5 hours and had estimated sustained intensities of 150-200 mm/h (see Figure). While the impacts of extreme rainfall events on urban areas cannot be ignored, the increasingly prolonged, dry inter-event periods necessitate that stormwater infiltration and percolation be maximized in order sustain base flows in support of aquatic ecosystems. − − While urban flooding and extreme rainfall garner the most attention in discussions pertaining to stormwater management, it is crucial that consideration also be given to the management of our water cycle during dry periods as well. Collectively, we need to be able to manage extreme rainfall events such as the July 8, 2013 storm, combined rain and snow events such as that which caused the Bow River flood in Calgary in 2013, and extended periods of drought as occurred in southern Ontario in 2007. Drought preparedness is required if we are to sustain riverine baseflows, ensure the security of drinking water resources and optimize both water and waste water infrastructure. − − As municipalities grapple with these new climate realities and their associated costs, they are rethinking how to manage stormwater using a variety of innovative solutions. The figure illustrates what has already happened in Ontario under conditions of prolonged drought. The Island Lake Reservoir, located near the Town of Orangeville, saw significant drawdown during the summer of 2007 after a period of prolonged drought. − − Reliant on groundwater for its municipal supply, continued pumping by the Town led to a significant drawdown within the reservoir. This was problematic not just for the ecosystem of the Lake, but for the downstream wastewater treatment plan as well, which relies on discharges from the reservoir in order to ensure that treated effluent can safely be assimilated by the receiving watercourse.
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===Water quality impacts===
===Water quality impacts===
The surface runoff generated in urban areas frequently carries with it a cocktail of pollutants. Although it is variable in nature, runoff pollutants are typically derived from a combination of fine sediments from atmospheric deposition, oil, grease and [[heavy metals]] (including Cd, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, Zn, etc.) from vehicular traffic and industrial activities, nutrients derived from lawn fertilizers and pet waste, and – in seasonally cold climates – road salts from [[winter]] maintenance activities <ref>Aryal, R. Vigneswaran, S. Kandasamy, J.; Naidu, R. 2010. Urban Stormwater Quality and Treatment. Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, 27(5):1343-1359</ref> <ref> Trenouth, W.R. Gharabaghi, B., Perera, N. 2015. Road salt application planning tool for winter de-icing operations. Journal of Hydrology. 524:401-410</ref>. These pollutants accumulate on the road surface during the antecedent dry period between consecutive rainfall events, and are washed off at the onset of rainfall. The majority of particles are washed off with the first flush of stormwater runoff, typically considered to be accounted for with the first 25 mm, or one inch or runoff <ref>Stenstrom, M.K. Kayhanian, M. 2005. First flush phenomenon characterization. Prepared for California Department of Transportation, Division of Environmental Analysis. Available at URL: http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/stormwater/pdf/CTSW-RT-05-073-02-6_First_Flush_Final_9-30-05.pdf</ref>.
The surface runoff generated in urban areas frequently carries with it a cocktail of pollutants. Although it is variable in nature, runoff pollutants are typically derived from a combination of fine sediments from atmospheric deposition, oil, grease and [[heavy metals]] (including Cd, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, Zn, etc.) from vehicular traffic and industrial activities, nutrients derived from lawn fertilizers and pet waste, and – in seasonally cold climates – road salts from [[winter]] maintenance activities <ref>Aryal, R. Vigneswaran, S. Kandasamy, J.; Naidu, R. 2010. Urban Stormwater Quality and Treatment. Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, 27(5):1343-1359</ref> <ref> Trenouth, W.R. Gharabaghi, B., Perera, N. 2015. Road salt application planning tool for winter de-icing operations. Journal of Hydrology. 524:401-410</ref>. These pollutants accumulate on the road surface during the antecedent dry period between consecutive rainfall events, and are washed off at the onset of rainfall. The majority of particles are washed off with the first flush of stormwater runoff, typically considered to be accounted for with the first 25 mm, or one inch or runoff <ref>Stenstrom, M.K. Kayhanian, M. 2005. First flush phenomenon characterization. Prepared for California Department of Transportation, Division of Environmental Analysis. Available at URL: http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/stormwater/pdf/CTSW-RT-05-073-02-6_First_Flush_Final_9-30-05.pdf</ref>.
==Alleviating pressures using LID==
==Alleviating pressures using LID==